Regeneration EQ3

Topic 16: National versus local government involvement

Key ideas

• UK government policies shape regeneration and growth through several levers:
  • Infrastructure investment:
    • HS2: the phase to the north was cancelled in 2023, and the line now runs London–Birmingham;
    • Crossrail / the Elizabeth line: opened in 2022;
    • airport expansion, e.g. the long-running debate about a third runway at Heathrow.
  • Planning law, e.g. green-belt protection, and deregulation of planning to speed up housebuilding.
  • Inward investment and trade policy: attracting FDI, e.g. Nissan in Sunderland since 1986.
  • Free movement of labour: this ended with the EU in 2021, which affects labour supply.
• Historic and recent national schemes:
  • Urban Development Corporations (1980s), e.g. the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC, 1981–1998). It used property-led regeneration and an Enterprise Zone, and transformed the Isle of Dogs into Canary Wharf.
    • Criticism: there were few benefits for local working-class residents.
  • Enterprise Zones offer tax breaks and simplified planning. They were introduced in 1981 and relaunched in 2012.
  • The Northern Powerhouse (2014) and Levelling Up policies (from 2019–2021), e.g. the Levelling Up Fund and Towns Fund.
• Local government:
  • Councils compete to attract investment, using local development plans and partnerships with developers.
  • Combined authorities with metro mayors (e.g. Greater Manchester from 2017) have devolved powers over transport, housing and skills.
• Tension between levels and players: national priorities (e.g. housing targets, airports) can conflict with local wishes, e.g. NIMBY opposition or environmental concerns.

Topic 17: Strategies for regeneration (e.g. sports-led)

Key ideas

• Main types of strategy:
  • Property-led: commercial or residential development, e.g. Canary Wharf.
  • Retail-led: shopping centres, e.g. Westfield Stratford City, or Liverpool ONE (opened 2008).
  • Culture- or heritage-led: museums, galleries, events, e.g. Salford Quays (the Lowry, 2000) and Glasgow (European City of Culture 1990).
  • Sports-led: mega-events and stadiums, e.g. London 2012.
  • Tourism-led: e.g. the Giant's Causeway Visitor Centre.
  • Community-led / social: skills, health and community enterprises.
• Infrastructure is often central to regeneration: transport links, broadband, the public realm.

Case study: London 2012 Olympics, Stratford (sports-led)

• Before:
  • The Lower Lea Valley was one of the most deprived parts of London.
  • Land was contaminated and derelict, and there were high levels of unemployment.
• Investment:
  • Total public-sector funding was about £8.77 billion.
  • The site became the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park.
• Legacy:
  • The Athletes' Village became the East Village, with about 2,800 homes, around half of them affordable.
  • Westfield Stratford City (2011) created about 10,000 permanent jobs.
  • The London Stadium is now home to West Ham United.
  • East Bank: a culture and education district including V&A East, Sadler's Wells East and UCL East.
  • Transport upgrades: Stratford International and the Elizabeth line.
• Criticisms:
  • Gentrification and rising house prices in Newham.
  • Displacement, e.g. the Clays Lane housing co-op and local businesses.
  • Questions over how many jobs went to local people.
  • Stadium conversion costs were high.

Case study: Salford Quays / MediaCityUK (culture- and property-led)

• Before: the Manchester Docks closed in 1982 after containerisation and the shift to larger ships, leaving dereliction and unemployment.
• Regeneration:
  • Salford City Council bought the docks in 1984 and developed them in partnership with private developers.
  • Key attractions followed: The Lowry (2000) and Imperial War Museum North (2002).
  • MediaCityUK: the BBC moved departments there from 2011, and ITV followed.
• Criticisms:
  • Concerns about how many local Salford residents got jobs.
  • Deprivation remains in nearby wards, e.g. Ordsall.

Topic 18: The role of rebranding

Key ideas

• Rebranding strategies:
  • Marketing and slogans.
  • Flagship architecture: the "Bilbao effect" of the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (1997).
  • Events: City of Culture, the Olympics, the Commonwealth Games.
  • Heritage and tourism.
• Example: Glasgow's rebranding:
  • "Glasgow's Miles Better" (1983);
  • European City of Culture (1990);
  • "Glasgow: Scotland with style" (2004);
  • "People Make Glasgow" (2013);
  • the Commonwealth Games (2014).
• UK City of Culture: Derry~Londonderry (2013), Hull (2017), Coventry (2021), Bradford (2025).
• Rural rebranding — diversification into:
  • tourism, e.g. "Poldark country" in Cornwall;
  • film locations, e.g. Northern Ireland and Game of Thrones;
  • local food and drink.

Case study: Giant's Causeway and Northern Ireland tourism

• Giant's Causeway Visitor Centre: opened in 2012 at a cost of about £18.5 million (National Trust).
• Game of Thrones screen tourism: Tourism NI reported about 350,000 visitors and £50 million in 2018.
• Both helped rebrand Northern Ireland after the Troubles.

Topic 19: Urban and rural regeneration

Key ideas

• Urban regeneration: brownfield redevelopment, mixed-use schemes, transport, flagship projects and housing renewal.
  • Issues: gentrification and displacement, "clone towns" (identical high streets), and whether benefits "trickle down" to locals.
• Rural regeneration:
  • Farm diversification: farm shops, holiday lets, renewable energy.
  • Rural tourism.
  • Broadband: e.g. the Superfast Cornwall programme of the 2010s.
  • Affordable housing for local people.
  • Community ownership: community shops and pubs.

Case study: the Eden Project, Cornwall (rural tourism-led)

• Opened in 2001 in a former china clay pit near St Austell.
• It brought large visitor numbers, local supply-chain spending and jobs to one of England's more deprived areas.
• Criticisms: seasonal and lower-paid jobs, and traffic congestion.
• Context: Cornwall received major EU structural funds (Objective One, then Convergence funding) because of its low GDP per head.

Glossary (Topics 16–19)

Term	Definition
Urban Development Corporation	A government-appointed body with planning powers set up to regenerate a run-down urban area (1980s–1990s).
Enterprise Zone	An area offering tax breaks and simplified planning to attract business.
Property-led regeneration	Regeneration driven by private commercial or residential development.
Flagship project	A high-profile building or development intended to symbolise and catalyse regeneration.
Bilbao effect	Using iconic architecture to rebrand a city and attract tourists.
Trickle-down effect	The idea that the benefits of investment spread to the wider population over time.
Clone town	A town whose high street is dominated by national chains, losing local distinctiveness.
Farm diversification	Farmers developing non-agricultural income streams.

Self-test

Q1: Give two criticisms of the LDDC's regeneration of London Docklands. A: The property-led approach benefited incoming businesses and wealthy residents more than local working-class communities (who had few relevant skills). It also created stark inequality between Canary Wharf and the surrounding estates.

Q2: Give three legacy outcomes of London 2012. A: The East Village homes (around 2,800, about half affordable), about 10,000 jobs at Westfield Stratford City, and the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park with its venues and the East Bank cultural quarter.

Q3: Give one example of rural rebranding. A: Game of Thrones screen tourism in Northern Ireland (about 350,000 visitors and £50 million in 2018), or the Eden Project in a former Cornish china clay pit.

---